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''Virtus'' () was a specific
virtue Virtue ( la, virtus) is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other words, it is a behavior that shows high moral standard ...
in
Ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 B ...
. It carries connotations of valor, manliness, excellence, courage, character, and worth, perceived as masculine strengths (from
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
''vir'', "man"). It was thus a frequently stated virtue of Roman emperors, and was personified as a deity—
Virtus ''Virtus'' () was a specific virtue in Ancient Rome. It carries connotations of valor, manliness, excellence, courage, character, and worth, perceived as masculine strengths (from Latin ''vir'', "man"). It was thus a frequently stated virtue o ...
.


Origins

The origins of the word ''virtus'' can be traced back to the Latin word ''vir'', "man". The common list of attributes associated with ''virtus'' are typically perceived masculine strengths, which may indicate its derivation from ''vir''. From the early to the later days of the Roman Empire, there appears to have been a development in how the concept was understood. Originally ''virtus'' was used to describe specifically martial courage, but it eventually grew to be used to describe a range of Roman virtues. It was often divided into different qualities including ''prudentia'' (
prudence Prudence ( la, prudentia, Contraction (grammar), contracted from meaning "seeing ahead, sagacity") is the ability to govern and discipline oneself by the use of reason. It is classically considered to be a virtue, and in particular one of th ...
), ''iustitia'' (
justice Justice, in its broadest sense, is the principle that people receive that which they deserve, with the interpretation of what then constitutes "deserving" being impacted upon by numerous fields, with many differing viewpoints and perspective ...
), ''
temperantia Temperance in its modern use is defined as moderation or voluntary self-restraint. It is typically described in terms of what an individual voluntarily refrains from doing. This includes restraint from revenge by practicing non-violence and forgi ...
'' (
temperance Temperance may refer to: Moderation *Temperance movement, movement to reduce the amount of alcohol consumed *Temperance (virtue), habitual moderation in the indulgence of a natural appetite or passion Culture *Temperance (group), Canadian danc ...
, self-control), and ''fortitudo'' (
courage Courage (also called bravery or valor) is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. Valor is courage or bravery, especially in battle. Physical courage is bravery in the face of physical pain, h ...
). This division of virtue as a whole into
cardinal virtues The cardinal virtues are four virtues of mind and character in both classical philosophy and Christian theology. They are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. They form a virtue theory of ethics. The term ''cardinal'' comes from the ...
is today classified as
virtue ethics Virtue ethics (also aretaic ethics, from Greek ἀρετή arete_(moral_virtue).html"_;"title="'arete_(moral_virtue)">aretḗ''_is_an_approach_to_ethics_that_treats_the_concept_of_virtue.html" ;"title="arete_(moral_virtue)">aretḗ''.html" ;" ...
, as described by
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
's ''
Republic A republic () is a "state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th c ...
'' and
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
's ''
Nicomachean Ethics The ''Nicomachean Ethics'' (; ; grc, Ἠθικὰ Νικομάχεια, ) is Aristotle's best-known work on ethics, the science of the good for human life, which is the goal or end at which all our actions aim. (I§2) The aim of the inquiry is ...
''. It implies a link between ''virtus'' and the Greek concept of ''
arete ''Arete'' (Greek: ) is a concept in ancient Greek thought that, in its most basic sense, refers to 'excellence' of any kind Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R. ''A Greek–English Lexicon'', 9th ed. (Oxford, 1940), s.v.br>—especially a person or thi ...
''. This inclusion leads to the belief that at one time ''virtus'' extended to cover a wide range of meanings that covered one general ethical ideal. The use of the word began to grow and shift to fit the new idea of what manliness meant. No longer did ''virtus'' mean that a person was a brave warrior but it could also mean that he was a good man, someone who did the right thing. During the time of the decline of the Roman elite ''virtus'' the Roman upper class no longer thought of themselves as unmanly if they did not serve in the military.


In Roman political philosophy

''Virtus'' comes from the aristocratic tradition in which it is a specific type of public conduct. It is really only applicable in the ''
cursus honorum The ''cursus honorum'' (; , or more colloquially 'ladder of offices') was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank. The '' ...
'', certainly by the late republic at least. It is not a "private" virtue in the way that modern people might consider it. Valor, courage, and manliness are not things that can be pursued in the private sphere of the individual or the individual's private concerns. There could be no virtue in exploiting one's manliness in the pursuit of personal wealth, for example. ''Virtus'' is exercised in the pursuit of ''gloria'' for the benefit of the '' res publica'' resulting in the winning of eternal "memoria". According to D.C. Earl "Outside the service of the ''res publica'' there can be no ''magistratus'' and therefore, strictly speaking, no ''gloria'', no ''nobilitas'', no ''virtus''". For the nobility ''virtus'' lies not only in one's personal "acta" but also that of one's ancestors. However Cicero, a ''
novus homo ''Novus homo'' or ''homo novus'' (Latin for 'new man'; ''novi homines'' or ''homines novi'') was the term in ancient Rome for a man who was the first in his Roman gens, family to serve in the Roman Senate or, more specifically, to be elected as R ...
'', asserted that ''virtus'' was a virtue particularly suited to the new man just as nobilitas was suited to the noble. Cicero argued that just as young men from noble families won the favor of the people so too should the novus homo earn the favor of the people with his ''virtus''. He even extended the argument that ''virtus'' and not one's family history should decide a man's worthiness. ''Virtus'' is something that a man earns himself, not something that is given to him by his family, thus it is a better measure of a man's ability. Cicero's goal was not to impugn the noble class but widen it to include men who had earned their positions by merit. The term was used quite significantly by the historian
Sallust Gaius Sallustius Crispus, usually anglicised as Sallust (; 86 – ), was a Roman historian and politician from an Italian plebeian family. Probably born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines, Sallust became during the 50s BC a partisan o ...
, a contemporary of Cicero. Sallust asserted that it did not rightfully belong to the ''nobilitas'' as a result of their family background but specifically to the ''
novus homo ''Novus homo'' or ''homo novus'' (Latin for 'new man'; ''novi homines'' or ''homines novi'') was the term in ancient Rome for a man who was the first in his Roman gens, family to serve in the Roman Senate or, more specifically, to be elected as R ...
'' through the exercise of ''ingenium'' (talent, also means sharpness of
mind The mind is the set of faculties responsible for all mental phenomena. Often the term is also identified with the phenomena themselves. These faculties include thought, imagination, memory, will, and sensation. They are responsible for various m ...
, sagacity, foresight and character). For Sallust and Cicero alike, ''virtus'' is situated in the winning of glory by the execution of illustrious deeds (''egregia facinora'') and the observance of right conduct through ''bonae artes''.


Applicability

''Virtus'' was not universally applicable to just anyone – generally (although not always exclusively) only adult male Roman citizens would be thought of as possessing ''virtus''.


Women

''Virtus'' was rarely attributed to women, likely because of its association with ''vir''. The highest regarded female virtue was ''pudicitia'': "modesty" or "chastity".
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
, however, attributes this characteristic to females several times. He uses it once to describe Caecilia Metella when she helps a man who is being chased by assassins. Twice more he uses it when describing his daughter, Tullia, portraying her in his letters as brave in his absence. He uses it again to describe his first wife
Terentia Terentia (; 98 BC – AD 6) was the wife of the renowned orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. She was instrumental in Cicero's political life both as a benefactor and as a fervent activist for his cause. Family background Terentia was born into a wea ...
during his exile. Livy in Book 2 attributes it to Cloelia.


Children

''Virtus'' was not a term commonly used to describe children. Since ''virtus'' was primarily attributed to a full grown man who had served in the military, children were not particularly suited to obtain this particular virtue.


Slaves

While a
slave Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
was able to be ''homo'' ("man") he was not considered a ''vir''. Slaves were often referred to as ''puer'' (Latin for ''boy'') to denote that they were not citizens. Since a slave could not be a ''vir'' it follows that they would not be allowed to have the quality of ''virtus''. Once a slave was manumitted he was able to become a ''vir'' and he was also classified as a freedman but this did not allow him to have ''virtus''. A good slave or freedman was said to have ''fides'', but no ''virtus''.


Foreigners

Foreigners in the Roman world could be attributed with ''virtus'': If they fought bravely they could be said to have ''virtus''. ''Virtus'' could also be lost in battle. ''Virtus'' could even be a cause to gain citizenship as in the case of Spanish cavalry men granted citizenship by Cn. Pompeius Strabo in 89 BC for their ''virtus'' in battle.


How was it used

''Virtus'' applies exclusively to a man's behaviour in the public sphere, i.e. to the application of duty to the '' res publica'' in the ''
cursus honorum The ''cursus honorum'' (; , or more colloquially 'ladder of offices') was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank. The '' ...
''. His private business was no place to earn ''virtus'', even when it involved courage or feats of arms or other qualities associated to it if performed for the public good.


In private

While in many cultures around the world it is considered "manly" to father and provide for a family, family life was considered in the Roman world to be part of the private sphere. During this time there was no place for ''virtus'' in the private sphere. Most uses of ''virtus'' to describe any part of private life are ambiguous and often refer to another similar quality. In the Roman world the oldest living patriarch of the family was called the ''
pater familias The ''pater familias'', also written as ''paterfamilias'' (plural ''patres familias''), was the head of a Roman family. The ''pater familias'' was the oldest living male in a household, and could legally exercise autocratic authority over his ext ...
'' and this title implied that he was able to make all legal and binding decisions for the family; he also owned all the money, land, and other property. His wife, daughters, sons, and his sons' families were all under his ''
potestas ''Potestas'' is a Latin word meaning power or faculty. It is an important concept in Roman Law. Origin of the concept The idea of ''potestas'' originally referred to the power, through coercion, of a Roman magistrate to promulgate edicts, give ac ...
''. The only time a son was seen as separate from his father's control in the eyes of other Romans was when he assumed his public identity as a citizen. He could earn his ''virtus'' by serving in the military, and thus could only demonstrate manliness outside of the family setting. This is another reason that ''virtus'' is not often used to describe the Roman private life.


In public

''Virtus'' was a crucial component for a political career. Its broad definition led to it being used to describe a number of qualities that the Roman people idealized in their leaders. In everyday life a typical Roman, especially a young boy, would have been inculcated with the idea of ''virtus''. Since military service was a part of most Roman men's life, military training would have started fairly early. Young boys would have learned how to wield weapons and military tactics starting at home with their fathers and older male relatives and later in school. Also as a young boy one would have heard numerous stories about past heroes, battles, and wars. Some of these stories would have surely told of the ''virtus'' of past heroes, and even family members. Publicly it was easy to see the rewards of ''virtus''. Public triumphs were held for victorious generals and rewards were given to brave fighters. All of this propaganda would have encouraged young boys coming into their manhood to be brave fighters and earn the attribute of ''virtus''. It was the duty of every generation of men to maintain the '' dignitas'' which his family had already earned and enlarge it. This pressure to live up to the standards of one's ancestors was great. In achieving ''virtus'' one could achieve ''
gloria Gloria may refer to: Arts and entertainment Music Christian liturgy and music * Gloria in excelsis Deo, the Greater Doxology, a hymn of praise * Gloria Patri, the Lesser Doxology, a short hymn of praise ** Gloria (Handel) ** Gloria (Jenkins) ...
''. By gaining ''virtus'' and ''gloria'' one could hope to aspire to high political office and great renown. Cicero suggested strongly that Virtus was real manhood and its boiled down to "Ever to excel," declared that "The whole glory of virtue irtusresides in activity.". A Roman political man would only need to show scars in defense of Republic to prove he has worth. Romans established their our own status through activity, creating a pecking order of honour. This involved
agon Agon (Greek ) is a Greek term for a conflict, struggle or contest. This could be a contest in athletics, in chariot or horse racing, or in music or literature at a public festival in ancient Greece. Agon is the word-forming element in 'agony', ...
- a test, trial, or ordeal, requiring active effort to overcome. In that active form, the characteristics of Roman thought believed to be negative; the "stone and ice" tendencies antithetical to virtue were banished. Such negative characteristics included being unashamed, inactive, isolated, leisurely and we’re the absence of virtus; placing dignitas into a static, frozen state. The contest established your being and constructed the reality of one’s virtus. Romans were willing to suffer shame, humiliation,
victory The term victory (from Latin ''victoria'') originally applied to warfare, and denotes success achieved in personal Duel, combat, after military operations in general or, by extension, in any competition. Success in a military campaign constitu ...
, defeat, glory, destruction, success and failure in pursuit of this. While young boys were encouraged to earn ''virtus'' there were also limits put on showing ''virtus'' in public. ''Virtus'' was often associated with being aggressive and this could be very dangerous in the public sphere and the political world. Displays of violent ''virtus'' were controlled through several methods. Men seeking to hold political office typically had to follow the ''
cursus honorum The ''cursus honorum'' (; , or more colloquially 'ladder of offices') was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank. The '' ...
''. Many political offices had an age minimum which ensured that the men filling the positions had the proper amount of experience in the military and in government. This meant that even if a man proved himself capable of filling a position or was able to persuade people that he was capable, he would not necessarily be able to hold the position until he had reached a certain age. This also served to ensure that in elections of public offices no one had a certain advantage over another person because by the time most men went into public office they would have retired from military service. Furthermore, before any Roman soldier could partake in single combat he had to gain permission from his general. This procedure was meant to keep soldiers from putting themselves in extremely dangerous situations that they may or may not have been able to handle in order gain ''virtus''. The concept of ''virtus'' also tended to be a concept of morality as far as politics were concerned. This could range from the very literal definition of manliness seen in aggression and the ruthless acquisition of money, land, and power, or the lighter, more idealistic political meaning which almost took on the extended meaning of "pietas", a man who was morally upright and concerned with the matters of the state. Plautus in ''
Amphitruo Amphitryon (; Ancient Greek: Ἀμφιτρύων, ''gen''.: Ἀμφιτρύωνος; usually interpreted as "harassing either side", Latin: Amphitruo), in Greek mythology, was a son of Alcaeus, king of Tiryns in Argolis. His mother was named ei ...
'' contrasted ''virtus'' and ''ambitio''. Virtus is seen as a positive attribute, though ''ambitio'' itself is not necessarily a negative attribute but is often associated with negative methods such as bribery.
Plautus Titus Maccius Plautus (; c. 254 – 184 BC), commonly known as Plautus, was a Roman playwright of the Old Latin period. His comedies are the earliest Latin literary works to have survived in their entirety. He wrote Palliata comoedia, the gen ...
said that just as great generals and armies win victory by ''virtus'', so should political candidates. ''Ambitio'' "is the wrong method of reaching a good end." Part of ''virtus'', in the political sphere was to deal justly in every aspect of one's life, especially in political and state matters. According to Brett and Kate McKay the Roman identity exists in a paradigm, it was a contest culture and honor culture, Roman's believed "your identity was neither fixed nor permanent, your worth was a moving target, and you had to always be actively engaged in proving yourself.".


Military

Although the two concepts are related, ''virtus'', for the Roman, did not necessarily emphasize the behavior that the associations of the present-day English term 'virtue' suggest. ''Virtus'' was to be found in the context of 'outstanding deeds' (''egregia facinora''), and brave deeds were the accomplishments which brought ''gloria'' ('a reputation'). This ''gloria'' was attached to two ideas: ''fama'' ('what people think of you') and ''dignitas'' ('one's standing in the community'). The struggle for ''virtus'' in Rome was above all a struggle for public office (''honos''), since it was through aspiring to high office, to which one was elected by the People, that a man could best show his manliness by means of military achievement which would in turn cultivate a reputation and votes. It was the duty of every aristocrat and would-be aristocrat to maintain the ''dignitas'' which his family had already achieved and to extend it to the greatest possible degree, through higher political office and military victories. This system resulted in a strong built-in impetus in Roman society to engage in military expansion and conquest at all times.


Sexuality

While in many cultures the virtue of manliness is seen as being partly sexual, in the Roman world the word ''virtus'' did not necessitate sexuality. Similar words deriving from the same stem often have sexual connotations, such as the word for man itself (''vir'') and the concept of "virility" (''virilitas''), though ''virtus'' most commonly was employed in the contexts of martial courage, honour, and ethical correctness. Nonetheless, poems such as
Catullus 16 ''Catullus 16'' or ''Carmen 16'' is a poem by Gaius Valerius Catullus (c. 84 BC – c. 54 BC). The poem, written in a hendecasyllabic (11-syllable) meter, was considered to be so sexually explicit following its rediscovery in the following centur ...
and the '' Carmina Priapea'', as well as speeches such as Cicero's ''
In Verrem "In Verrem" ("Against Verres") is a series of speeches made by Cicero in 70 BC, during the corruption and extortion trial of Gaius Verres, the former governor of Sicily. The speeches, which were concurrent with Cicero's election to the aedileship, ...
'', demonstrate that manliness and ''
pudicitia Pudicitia ("modesty" or "sexual virtue") was a central concept in ancient Roman sexual ethics. The word is derived from the more general ''pudor'', the sense of shame that regulated an individual's behavior as socially acceptable. ''Pudicitia' ...
'', or sexual propriety, are inextricably linked.


Marcellus and the Temple

M. Claudius Marcellus Marcus Claudius Marcellus (; 270 – 208 BC), five times elected as consul of the Roman Republic, was an important Roman military leader during the Gallic War of 225 BC and the Second Punic War. Marcellus gained the most prestigious award a Roma ...
, during the battle of
Clastidium Clastidium (modern Casteggio), was a village of the Ligurian tribe of Anamares (Marici named also) in Gallia Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 miles east of Iria (modern Voghera) and 31 miles west of Placentia. Here in 222 BC, Marcus Claudius ...
in 222 BC, dedicated a temple to
Honos Honos () or Honor () was the Roman god personifying honor. He was closely associated with Virtus, the goddess of manliness, or bravery, and the two are frequently depicted together. Honos is typically shown wearing a chaplet of bay leaves, whil ...
and Virtus. This was one of the first times that ''Virtus'' had been recognized as divine. The connection with ''Honos'' would have been obvious to most Romans as demonstrations of ''virtus'' led to election to public office and both were considered ''honos''. The cult of ''Honos'' was already a long-standing tradition in Rome. The marriage of the two deities ensured that ''Virtus'' would also get proper respect from the Romans. But an objection by the pontiffs was that one temple could not properly house two gods because there would be no way of knowing which god to sacrifice to should a miracle happen in the temple.


Augustus

During the reign of
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pri ...
, the
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
voted that a golden shield be inscribed with Augustus' attributes and displayed in the
Curia Iulia The Curia Julia ( la, Curia Iulia, links=no, it, Curia Iulia, links=no) is the third named ''curia'', or senate, senate house, in the Ancient Rome, ancient city of Rome. It was built in 44 BC, when Julius Caesar replaced Faustus Cornelius Sulla ( ...
, including ''virtus'', ''
clementia In Roman mythology, Clementia was the goddess of clemency, leniency, mercy, forgiveness, penance, redemption, absolution, acquittal and salvation. She was defined as a celebrated virtue of Julius Caesar, who was famed for his forbearance, espec ...
'', '' iustitia'', and ''
pietas ''Pietas'' (), translated variously as "duty", "religiosity" or "religious behavior", "loyalty", "devotion", or "filial piety" (English "piety" derives from the Latin), was one of the chief virtues among the ancient Romans. It was the distingui ...
''. These political catchwords continued to be used as propaganda by later emperors.


In literature

The comic poet Plautus made use of the concept of ''virtus'' in his play ''Trinummus'' which concerned family ''virtus'', honor and public office, and obligations to the state. He also offered commentary on the concept of ''virtus'' in ''Amphitruo'' (see above "Virtus and the Public"). Cicero said, " nlyvirtus usually wards off a cruel and dishonorable death, and virtus is the badge of the Roman race and breed ic Cling fast to irtus I beg you men of Rome, as a heritage that your ancestors bequeathed to you. All else is false and doubtful, ephemeral and changeful: only virtus stands firmly fixed, its roots run deep, it can never be shaken by any violence, never moved from its place."


See also

* Virtue § Roman virtues – contains a list of Roman virtues * ''Arete'' (moral virtue) *
Justice Justice, in its broadest sense, is the principle that people receive that which they deserve, with the interpretation of what then constitutes "deserving" being impacted upon by numerous fields, with many differing viewpoints and perspective ...
*
Prudence Prudence ( la, prudentia, Contraction (grammar), contracted from meaning "seeing ahead, sagacity") is the ability to govern and discipline oneself by the use of reason. It is classically considered to be a virtue, and in particular one of th ...
*
Courage Courage (also called bravery or valor) is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. Valor is courage or bravery, especially in battle. Physical courage is bravery in the face of physical pain, h ...
*
Clementia In Roman mythology, Clementia was the goddess of clemency, leniency, mercy, forgiveness, penance, redemption, absolution, acquittal and salvation. She was defined as a celebrated virtue of Julius Caesar, who was famed for his forbearance, espec ...
* ''
Pietas ''Pietas'' (), translated variously as "duty", "religiosity" or "religious behavior", "loyalty", "devotion", or "filial piety" (English "piety" derives from the Latin), was one of the chief virtues among the ancient Romans. It was the distingui ...
'' * ''
Gravitas ''Gravitas'' () was one of the ancient Roman virtues that denoted "seriousness". It is also translated variously as weight, dignity, and importance and connotes restraint and moral rigor. It also conveys a sense of responsibility and commitment ...
''


Notes


References


Citations


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * {{Ancient Rome topics Latin political words and phrases Ancient Roman virtues